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Fundamental Dogmas of Stoicism
The fundamental dogmas of Stoicism as found by Pierre Hadot in the The Meditations of Marcus Aurelius and compiled in The Inner Citadel: The Meditations of Marcus Aurelius (pp. 36-43); the format follows that of Bruce MacLennan in Notes on Marcus Aurelius (IV, B).
The only good is moral good, and the only evil is moral evil.
But I who have seen the nature of the good that it is beautiful,
and of the bad that it is ugly (Marcus Aurelius, II, 1, 3).
What principles? Those which relate to good and bad: the belief that there is
nothing good for man, which does not make him just, temperate, manly, free;
and that there is nothing bad, which does not do the contrary to what has
been mentioned (VIII, 1, 6).
- Pleasure is not a good and pain is not an evil.
And think also of all that thou hast heard and assented
to about pain and pleasure, and be quiet at last (IV, 3, 6).
Contemplate the formative principles (forms) of things bare of
their coverings; the purposes of actions; consider what pain is, what pleasure
is, and death, and fame; who is to himself the cause of his uneasiness;
how no man is hindered by another; that everything is
opinion (XII, 8).
- The only thing shameful is moral evil.
But I who have seen the nature of the good that it is beautiful,
and of the bad that it is ugly (II, 1, 3).
- Faults committed against us cannot touch us.
I can neither be injured by any of them, for no one can
fix on me what is ugly (II, 1, 3).
When thou art troubled about anything, thou hast forgotten this [...]
that a man's wrongful act is nothing to thee (XII, 26).
- He who commits a fault hurts only himself.
Does any one do wrong? It is to himself
that he does the wrong (IV, 26, 3).
He who does wrong does wrong against himself. He who acts unjustly
acts unjustly to himself, because he makes himself bad. (IV, 4).
It is thy duty to leave another man's wrongful act there where
it is (IX, 20).
If any man has done wrong, the harm is his own. But perhaps he
has not done wrong (IX, 38).
- We can suffer no harm whatsoever from the actions of anyone else.
I can neither be injured by any of them, for no one can
fix on me what is ugly (II, 1, 3).
The wrong-doer has done
thee no harm, for he has not made thy ruling faculty worse than it was
before (VII, 22, 2).
- Faults cannot be found elsewhere then within oneself.
...that I received clear and frequent impressions about living according to nature, and what kind of a life that is, so that, so far as depended on the gods, and their gifts, and help, and inspirations, nothing hindered me from forthwith living according to nature, though I still fall short of it through my own fault, and through not observing the admonitions of the gods, and, I may almost say, their direct instructions (I, 17).
Only that which depends on us can be either good or evil; and
our judgment and our assent depend on us.
Consider that everything is opinion, and opinion is in thy power.
Take away then, when thou choosest, thy opinion, and like a mariner, who
has doubled the promontory, thou wilt find calm, everything stable, and
a waveless bay (XII, 22).
- The only evil or trouble there can be for us resides in our own judgment; that is to say, in the way we represent things to ourselves.
But among the things readiest to thy hand to which thou shalt
turn, let there be these, which are two. One is that things do not
touch the soul, for they are external and remain immovable; but our
perturbations come only from the opinion which is within (IV, 3, 10).
It is not men's acts which disturb us, for those
acts have their foundation in men's ruling principles, but it is our own
opinions which disturb us. Take away these opinions then, and resolve to
dismiss thy judgement about an act as if it were something grievous, and
thy anger is gone. (IX, 18, 11).
- People are the authors of their own problems.
Hast thou seen those things? Look also at these. Do not disturb thyself.
Make thyself all simplicity. Does any one do wrong? It is to himself
that he does the wrong. Has anything happened to thee? Well; out of
the universe from the beginning everything which happens has been
apportioned and spun out to thee. In a word, thy life is short. Thou
must turn to profit the present by the aid of reason and justice.
Be sober in thy relaxation (IV, 26).
Contemplate the formative principles (forms) of things bare of
their coverings; the purposes of actions; consider what pain is, what pleasure
is, and death, and fame; who is to himself the cause of his uneasiness;
how no man is hindered by another; that everything is
opinion (XII, 8).
- Things do not come inside us in order to trouble us.
But among the things readiest to thy hand to which thou shalt
turn, let there be these, which are two. One is that things do not
touch the soul, for they are external and remain immovable; but our
perturbations come only from the opinion which is within. (IV, 3).
- The intellect is independent of the body.
I consist of a little body and a soul. Now to this little body
all things are indifferent, for it is not able to perceive differences.
But to the understanding those things only are indifferent, which are not
the works of its own activity. But whatever things are the works of its
own activity, all these are in its power. And of these however only those
which are done with reference to the present; for as to the future and
the past activities of the mind, even these are for the present
indifferent (VI, 32).
The ruling faculty does not disturb itself; I mean, does not frighten
itself or cause itself pain. But if any one else can frighten or pain it,
let him do so. For the faculty itself will not by its own opinion turn
itself into such ways. Let the body itself take care, if it can, that is
suffer nothing, and let it speak, if it suffers. But the soul itself, that
which is subject to fear, to pain, which has completely the power of forming
an opinion about these things, will suffer nothing, for it will never deviate
into such a judgement. The leading principle in itself wants nothing, unless
it makes a want for itself; and therefore it is both free from perturbation
and unimpeded, if it does not disturb and impede itself (VII, 16).
- Everything is a matter of judgment.
Contemplate the formative principles (forms) of things bare of
their coverings; the purposes of actions; consider what pain is, what pleasure
is, and death, and fame; who is to himself the cause of his uneasiness;
how no man is hindered by another; that everything is
opinion (XII, 8).
Consider that everything is opinion, and opinion is in thy power.
Take away then, when thou choosest, thy opinion, and like a mariner, who
has doubled the promontory, thou wilt find calm, everything stable, and
a waveless bay (XII, 22).
When thou art troubled about anything, thou hast forgotten this [...] that everything is opinion (XII, 26).
- Every fault is in fact a false judgment, and proceeds from ignorance.
It is not men's acts which disturb us, for those
acts have their foundation in men's ruling principles, but it is our own
opinions which disturb us. Take away these opinions then, and resolve to
dismiss thy judgement about an act as if it were something grievous, and
thy anger is gone. How then shall I take away these opinions? By reflecting
that no wrongful act of another brings shame on thee: for unless that which
is shameful is alone bad, thou also must of necessity do many things wrong,
and become a robber and everything else (XI, 18).
The unity and rationality of the Cosmos.
- Everything comes from Universal Nature and in conformity with its will.
When thou art troubled about anything, thou hast forgotten this,
that all things happen according to the universal nature... (XII, 26).
- Even the malevolence of mankind, which is a necessary consequence of the gift of liberty.
We are all working together to one end, some with knowledge and
design, and others without knowing what they do; as men also when they
are asleep, of whom it is Heraclitus, I think, who says that they are labourers
and co-operators in the things which take place in the universe. But men
co-operate after different fashions: and even those co-operate abundantly,
who find fault with what happens and those who try to oppose it and to
hinder it; for the universe had need even of such men as these. It remains
then for thee to understand among what kind of workmen thou placest thyself;
for he who rules all things will certainly make a right use of thee, and
he will receive thee among some part of the co-operators and of those whose
labours conduce to one end. But be not thou such a part as the mean and
ridiculous verse in the play, which Chrysippus speaks
of (VI, 42).
But if thou wilt, receive also a tenth present from the leader
of the Muses (Apollo), and it is this- that to expect bad men not to do
wrong is madness, for he who expects this desires an impossibility. But
to allow men to behave so to others, and to expect them not to do thee
any wrong, is irrational and tyrannical (XI, 18, 24).
- Everything occurs in conformity with Destiny.
Has anything happened to thee? Well; out of
the universe from the beginning everything which happens has been
apportioned and spun out to thee. (IV, 26, 4).
- All things undergo continuous metamorphosis in accord with Nature.
Consider that before long thou wilt be nobody and nowhere, nor
will any of the things exist which thou now seest, nor any of those who
are now living. For all things are formed by nature to change and be turned
and to perish in order that other things in continuous succession may
exist (XII, 21).
But perhaps the
desire of the thing called fame will torment thee.- See how soon everything
is forgotten, and look at the chaos of infinite time on each side
of the present, and the emptiness of applause, and the changeableness
and want of judgement in those who pretend to give praise, and the
narrowness of the space within which it is circumscribed, and be quiet
at last (IV, 3, 11).
- But are also ceaselessly repeated.
As it happens to thee in the amphitheatre and such places, that
the continual sight of the same things and the uniformity make the spectacle
wearisome, so it is in the whole of life; for all things above, below,
are the same and from the same. How long then? (VI, 46).
What is badness? It is that which thou hast often seen. And on the occasion
of everything which happens keep this in mind, that it is that which thou
hast often seen. Everywhere up and down thou wilt find the same things,
with which the old histories are filled, those of the middle ages and those
of our own day; with which cities and houses are filled now. There is nothing
new: all things are both familiar and short-lived (VII, 1).
All things are the same, familiar in experience, and ephemeral
in time, and worthless in the matter. Everything now is just as it was
in the time of those whom we have buried (IX, 14).
When thou art troubled about anything, thou hast forgotten this [...] that everything which happens, always happened so and will
happen so, and now happens so everywhere (XII, 26).
- We must die.
For with what art thou discontented?
With the badness of men? Recall to thy mind this conclusion, that
rational animals exist for one another, and that to endure is a part
of justice, and that men do wrong involuntarily; and consider how
many already, after mutual enmity, suspicion, hatred, and fighting,
have been stretched dead, reduced to ashes; and be quiet at last (IV, 3, 4).
Consider that thou dost not even understand whether men
are doing wrong or not, for many things are done with a certain reference
to circumstances. And in short, a man must learn a great deal to enable
him to pass a correct judgement on another man's acts.
life is only a moment, and after a short time we are all laid out
dead (XI, 18, 10).
- Nature is unified by a sympathy.
Either it is a well-arranged universe or a chaos huddled together,
but still a universe. But can a certain order subsist in thee, and
disorder in the All? And this too when all things are so separated
and diffused and sympathetic (IV, 27).
Constantly regard the universe as one living being, having one substance
and one soul; and observe how all things have reference to one perception,
the perception of this one living being; and how all things act with
one movement; and how all things are the cooperating causes of all
things which exist; observe too the continuous spinning of the thread
and the contexture of the web (IV, 40).
Let the part of thy soul which leads and governs be undisturbed by
the movements in the flesh, whether of pleasure or of pain; and let
it not unite with them, but let it circumscribe itself and limit those
affects to their parts. But when these affects rise up to the mind
by virtue of that other sympathy that naturally exists in a body which
is all one, then thou must not strive to resist the sensation, for
it is natural: but let not the ruling part of itself add to the sensation
the opinion that it is either good or bad (V, 26).
Frequently consider the connexion of all things in the universe
and their relation to one another. For in a manner all things are implicated
with one another, and all in this way are friendly to one another; for
one thing comes in order after another, and this is by virtue of the active
movement and mutual conspiration and the unity of the
substance (VI, 38).
All things which participate in anything which is common to them
all move towards that which is of the same kind with themselves. Everything
which is earthy turns towards the earth, everything which is liquid flows
together, and everything which is of an aerial kind does the same, so that
they require something to keep them asunder, and the application of force.
Fire indeed moves upwards on account of the elemental fire, but it is so
ready to be kindled together with all the fire which is here, that even
every substance which is somewhat dry, is easily ignited, because there
is less mingled with it of that which is a hindrance to ignition. Accordingly
then everything also which participates in the common intelligent nature
moves in like manner towards that which is of the same kind with itself,
or moves even more. For so much as it is superior in comparison with all
other things, in the same degree also is it more ready to mingle with and
to be fused with that which is akin to it. Accordingly among animals devoid
of reason we find swarms of bees, and herds of cattle, and the nurture
of young birds, and in a manner, loves; for even in animals there are souls,
and that power which brings them together is seen to exert itself in the
superior degree, and in such a way as never has been observed in plants
nor in stones nor in trees. But in rational animals there are political
communities and friendships, and families and meetings of people; and in
wars, treaties and armistices. But in the things which are still superior,
even though they are separated from one another, unity in a manner exists,
as in the stars. Thus the ascent to the higher degree is able to produce
a sympathy even in things which are separated. See, then, what now takes
place. For only intelligent animals have now forgotten this mutual desire
and inclination, and in them alone the property of flowing together is
not seen. But still though men strive to avoid this union, they are caught
and held by it, for their nature is too strong for them; and thou wilt
see what I say, if thou only observest. Sooner, then, will one find anything
earthy which comes in contact with no earthy thing than a man altogether
separated from other men (IX, 9).
- There is a mutual mixture and implication of everything in everything .
Frequently consider the connexion of all things in the universe
and their relation to one another. For in a manner all things are implicated
with one another, and all in this way are friendly to one another; for
one thing comes in order after another, and this is by virtue of the active
movement and mutual conspiration and the unity of the
substance (VI, 38).
All things are implicated with one another, and the bond is holy;
and there is hardly anything unconnected with any other thing. For things
have been co-ordinated, and they combine to form the same universe (order).
For there is one universe made up of all things, and one God who pervades
all things, and one substance, and one law, one common reason in all intelligent
animals, and one truth; if indeed there is also one perfection for all
animals which are of the same stock and participate in the same
reason (VII, 9).
- "The whole is more important than its parts." (Epictetus)
...God has made all the things in the universe and the universe itself completely free from hindrance and perfect, and the parts of it for the use of the whole? All other animals indeed are incapable of comprehending the administration of it; but the rational animal, man, has faculties for the consideration of all these and for understanding that it is a part, and what kind of a part it is, and that it is right for the parts to be subordinate to the whole (Discourses IV, 7).
- Universal Reason gives form and energy to matter that is docile.
- Human reason is a part of Universal Reason.
When thou art troubled about anything, thou hast forgotten this [...] that every man's intelligence is a god, and is an efflux of the
deity (XII, 26).
- All humans are related.
When thou art troubled about anything, thou hast forgotten this [...] how close
is the kinship between a man and the whole human race, for it is a community,
not of a little blood or seed, but of intelligence (XII, 26).
- People are made for each other.
Men exist for the sake of one another. Teach them then or bear
with them (VIII, 59).
He who acts unjustly acts impiously. For since the universal nature has
made rational animals for the sake of one another to help one another according
to their deserts, but in no way to injure one another, he who transgresses
her will, is clearly guilty of impiety towards the highest divinity (IX, 1).
The immensity of Universal Nature.
- The whole of life seems to be of miniscule duration.
Near is thy forgetfulness of all things; and near the forgetfulness
of thee by all (VII, 21).
Turn it (the body) inside out, and see what kind of thing it is;
and when it has grown old, what kind of thing it becomes, and when it is
diseased (VIII, 21).
Consider in what condition both in body and soul a man should be
when he is overtaken by death; and consider the shortness of life, the
boundless abyss of time past and future, the feebleness of all
matter (XII, 7).
- The instant seems infinitesimal .
Though thou shouldst be going to live three thousand years, and as
many times ten thousand years, still remember that no man loses any
other life than this which he now lives, nor lives any other than
this which he now loses. The longest and shortest are thus brought
to the same. For the present is the same to all, though that which
perishes is not the same; and so that which is lost appears to be
a mere moment. For a man cannot lose either the past or the future:
for what a man has not, how can any one take this from him? These
two things then thou must bear in mind; the one, that all things from
eternity are of like forms and come round in a circle, and that it
makes no difference whether a man shall see the same things during
a hundred years or two hundred, or an infinite time; and the second,
that the longest liver and he who will die soonest lose just the same.
For the present is the only thing of which a man can be deprived,
if it is true that this is the only thing which he has, and that a
man cannot lose a thing if he has it not (II, 14).
When thou art troubled about anything, thou hast forgotten this [...] that every man lives
the present time only, and loses only this (XII, 26).
- The earth is like a point .
For the whole earth is a point, and how small a nook in it is this thy dwelling, and how few are there in it, and what kind of people are they who will praise thee (IV, 3).
- Current fame and posthumous glory seem completely vain.
How many after being celebrated by fame have been given up to oblivion;
and how many who have celebrated the fame of others have long been
dead (VII, 6).
Near is thy forgetfulness of all things; and near the forgetfulness
of thee by all (VII, 21).
See that thou secure this present time to thyself: for those who
rather pursue posthumous fame do consider that the men of after time will
be exactly such as these whom they cannot bear now; and both are mortal.
And what is it in any way to thee if these men of after time utter this
or that sound, or have this or that opinion about thee? (VIII, 44).
Consider that before long thou wilt be nobody and nowhere, nor
will any of the things exist which thou now seest, nor any of those who
are now living. For all things are formed by nature to change and be turned
and to perish in order that other things in continuous succession may
exist (XII, 21).
- All the more so since they only can be obtained from people who contradict themselves and each other;
- Whom one cannot respect if one sees them as they really are.
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